Reflection paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 30

Reflection paper - Essay Example illiant work of American FBI agents and their valuable experience, they still sometimes miss important facts just because the crime is committed by a person who simply could not be suspected of committing any crime. The case of Robert Hanssen was one of such cases which seem hopeless. The most unpleasant moment in the investigation is the desire of agents not to find a spy, but to close the case. They started suspecting an innocent man Brian Kelly and traced him everywhere until he was fired from job. They caused many troubles to him, but the real violator remained free and unsuspected. Finally, looking for the evidences of Brian’s non-existed guilt, they got the file with the proofs of spies work in the Soviet Union from the ex-agent of KGB for $7 million. Inside the file they found an audio record of a conversation. They were sure that they would hear the voice of Brian Kelly and were unpleasantly surprised when heard a voice of a different man, unknown, but a bit familiar. Finally one of the agents recognized the voice: it was the voice of Robert Hanssen. It is also known that they found the fingerprints of Hanssen on one of the document and recognized the voice only after that. But we can hardy state that he would be suspected only due to fingerprints. Criminalists are currently facing a very serious problem connected with the interpretation of fingerprints. They doubt if they should believe this method. If genetic dactyloscopy can be considered an absolutely reliable method of personality identification provided that the selection was made correctly, plain analysis of fingerprints frequently leads to mistakes. Widespread belief in the uniqueness of papillary lines for each person is rather a product of intuition, but not of the scientific investigation. Such belief is not supported by any scientific method, theoretical model or empirical evidence. The wide application of a method can’t guarantee its credibility. During many years the best Eur opean

Gibbs-Donnan Effect on Resting Membrane Potential

Gibbs-Donnan Effect on Resting Membrane Potential How the Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium conditions and diffusion through a semipermeable membrane are involved in creating the resting membrane potential Introduction The resting membrane potential (RMP) is an electrical potential difference in cells, occurring across their plasma membranes. The cytoplasm of the cell is electrically negative in comparison to the surrounding extracellular fluid, this difference in electrical charge gives rise to the RMP. The RMP is essential for the functioning of many electrically excitable cells including, neuronal cells, smooth and skeletal muscle cells, as well as cardiac myocytes, which through electrical impulses control the contractility of the heart. During this essay the generation of the resting membrane potential will be explored, including the effects of the Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium conditions, the structure and function of the plasma membrane, and how, with the diffusion of ions through a semi permeable membrane they give rise to the RMP. (Levy, N. et al.2006) Plasma Membrane The plasma membrane asserts tight control over the interstitial environment of the cell, this is achieved through the formation of a phospholipid bilayer containing protein constituents (ref). Phospholipids are distributed into two leaflets within the bilayer, with the hydrophobic portions facing inwards and the hydrophilic tails of the phospholipids facing the aqueous environment, the presence of phospholipids give the membrane its capacitance. Integral membrane proteins and ion channel proteins span the length of the membrane, like that of the Na+-K+ pump and Sodium-Potassium leak channels discussed later, which aid in the conductance of the cell membrane. The inter and extracellular surfaces of the membrane are negatively charged, due to the presence of acidic phospholipids and the anionic nature of proteins at biological pH, this negative charge on the outer membranes with respect to extra and intracellular fluid is known as the zeta potential, which causes the formation of a sma ll electrical field (ref); This electrical field works to achieve electroneutrality with opposing charged particles, and by doing so aids in the formation of concentration gradients. Changes to surface charges within the plasma membrane, such as ionic concentrations, can therefore effect the resting membrane potential and the ability of a cell to reach threshold (Sperelakis, N. 1998). Concentration gradient and Electrical Potential To understand how the flow of ions contribute to the RMP, the formation of a concentration gradient and electrical potential must first be understood. Molecules diffuse from an area of high concentration to an area of lower concentration, if two aqueous compartments separated by a membrane were formed, containing equal concentrations of the X molecule then no diffusion would occur between compartments (Figure 1). However if the concentration of X increased in compartment A, then the ion would flow down its concentration gradient into compartment B until equilibrium is reached between compartments. However diffusion is more complexed in biological compartments as ions are found in the form of cations and anions. If an X+ion was placed in compartment A, which contained a higher concentration of X+than compartment B, then X+ would again flow down its concentration gradient into compartment B, however X+ now also flows against its concentration gradient back into compartment A, due to th e electrical potential difference across the membrane, generated by the loss of cations from compartment A, causing an increase in negativity, and an increase in X+in compartment B, increasing electrical charge opposing cations (Figure 2); This movement of ions causes a potential difference to arise between compartments, increased movement of X+ down its concentration gradient, increases the potential difference, and decreases the ability of X+ to move against its electrical gradients, thus an equilibrium is reached between the concentration gradient and electrical gradient, known as the equilibrium potential (Aidley, D.1989). Gibbs-Donnan Equilibrium The cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells contain permeable ions as well as many impermeable ionised molecules that cannot penetrate the cell membrane, such as proteins, nucleic acids and glycoproteins. Many of these intracellular molecules are negatively charged at physiological pH, causing a notable effect on the concentration gradient and electrical potential of permeable cations and anions across the plasma membrane. The effect of impermeable intracellular anionic molecules therefore influences the resting membrane potential, this is known as a Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium. Again consider two aqueous compartments separated by a semi permeable membrane, compartment A contains Na+ and proteins (Pr-), compartment B contains Na+ and Cl- (Figure 3a). The semi permeable membrane is permeable to Na+, Cl- and Water but impermeable to Pr-. Compartment A and B contain 0.1 molar solutions of Na protinate and NaCl respectively, as the concentration of Cl- is higher in compartment B it diffuses down its concentration gradient into compartment A, this is turn causes the creation of an electrical potential as compartment A increases in negativity due to the anionic properties of Cl-, prompting a flux of K+ down its electrical gradient from compartment B to A. Equilibrium will eventually occur between compartments so that the concentration of Na+ and Cl- are equal (Figure 3b): [Na+]A[Cl-]A= [Na+]B[Cl-]B This is known as Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium conditions (Sperelakis, N.1998). However it must be noted from the equations that only the permeate ions satisfy the gibbs-donnan equilibrium conditions, the impermeable Pr- are not included as they are unable to diffuse and reach equilibrium (Sperelakis, N.1998). Applying the Nernst equation for either Na+ or Cl- results in a negative electrical potential, this is due to the impermeable protein ions in chamber A (Sperelakis, N.1998), these negative impermeable intracellular anions therefore contribute to the negativity of the cytoplasm in relation to the extracellular fluid, contributing to the resting membrane potential (Donnan, F). Another property of Gibbs-Donnan equilibria should be noted, looking at figure 3b it can be seen that the net concentration of NaCl in chamber A is greater than that of chamber B, this is due to the presence of protein anions in chamber A when establishing electrochemical equilibrium between ions, and is a general property of Gibbs-Donnan equilibria (Levy, N. et al.2006). Finally it is important to mention the equilibrium state of water, as previously mentioned chamber A contains a higher concentration of ions than chamber B, therefore there is a large osmotic gradient between the two chambers; This leads to a flux of water from chamber B to A, however, the osmotic effects of water influx on chamber A acts to dilute ion concentrations building up within the chamber, therefore hydrostatic pressure in chamber A would be insufficient to oppose water influx, leading to a depletion of water and NaCl ions from chamber B (Sperelakis, N.1998); However this situation does not resemble true Gi bbs-Donnan equilibrium conditions, where by the build up of osmotic pressure in chamber A would resist the further osmotic influx of water, resulting in swelling of the chamber, if it were to be enclosed, such as a living cell (Sperelakis, N.1998). If unopposed gibbs-donnan equilibrium would cause the cytoplasm of living cells to have an osmotic pressure greater than that of the surrounding extracellular fluid, as water enters cells, control over cell volume may be lost (Sperelakis, N.1998). However this is not the case due to the cells ability to transport ions (Levy, N. et al.2006). Ion transport The resting membrane potential within skeletal muscle cells is around -80mV, this is due to the differing ion concentrations between the cytoplasm and surrounding extracellular fluid (ref), this difference in ion concentrations is maintained by the active transport of ions against there electrochemical gradient, powered by metabolic energy (ref). The ion pump of most importance to preserving potential difference across the cell membrane is the Na+/K+ATPase, this pumps out three Na+ in exchange for two extracellular K+, through the hydrolysis of a membrane bound ATPase, this ratio of 3:2 leaves the cytoplasm negative in respect to the extracellular fluid, and is therefore termed an electrogenic pump (Huang, F.et al.2009). Although the Na+/K+ATPase is responsible for only a small amount of the RMP between 12-16mV in skeletal myoblasts (Sperelakis, N.1998), overtime inhibition can lead to lack of cell excitability due to the accumulation of small depolarisations. Ion Diffusion To understand how Na+, K+ diffuse across the plasma membrane causing the RMP, their intra and extracellular concentrations must be established (Figure 4). Each ion is capable of establishing a RMP, therefore the potential depends on several factors, the permeability of the membrane to each ion, the intra and extracellular concentrations of each ion and the polarity of the ions (Guyton and Hall.2000). Firstly if the membrane is only permeable to a certain ion then that ion will be solely responsible for the generation of the RMP, for example, in a nerve fibre K+ concentration is greater in the cytoplasm than the extracellular fluid, if the membrane were only permeable to K+, then K+ would diffuse down its concentration gradient into the extracellular fluid until opposed by its electrical gradient, this would leave the cytoplasm with a negative charge of around -94mV with respect to the extracellular fluid, thus K+ would be responsible for a resting membrane potential of -94mV, as this is the Nernst potential for K+ (Guyton and Hall.2000). However the RMP cannot be caused by one ion alone, as the nerve cells has a RMP of -90mV, and the Nernsts potentials for K+ and Na+ are -94mV and +61mV respectively, therefore if the RMP was caused by one univalent ion it would be equal to that of their Nernst potential (Guyton and Hall.2000). Due to the Nernst potential of K+, it can be assumed that this ion is the major contributor to the RMP, the cytoplasmic concentration of K+ is 35times higher than that of its extracellular concentration, and it diffuses through the membrane via Potassium-Sodium leak channels in which its is 100 times more permeable to than Na+ (Guyton and Hall. 2000). However Na+ also contributes to the RMP by low amounts of Na+ diffusing through the Potassium-Sodium leak channels, this small amount of diffusion leads to a ratio of 0:1 Na+ in the cytoplasm to the extracellular fluid, giving a Nernst potential of +61mV (Guyton and Hall. 2000). Using the Nernst potentials for Na+ and k+ in theGoldman-Hodgkin-Katz equationtheir contribution to the RMP can be established, this results in an internal membrane potential of -86mV (Guyton and Hall. 2000). The remaining -4mV comes from the contribution of the previously mentioned electrogenic Na+-K+ pump, leading to a RMP of -90mV in nerve fibres (Guyton and Hall. 2000). Conclusion To conclude, the RMP arises due to a combination of several factors most of which have been covered in the preceding discussions. The cell membranes structural properties allow for the capacitance and conductance of electrical charges, as well as the generation of electrical fields due to the negatively charged outer membrane, this works to aid in the formation of concentration gradients by which ions flow. In the presence of ionic species which are unable to permeate the cell membrane, such as anionic intracellular proteins, a Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium occurs, in which the distribution of permeable ions favour the intracellular environment due to the presence of impermeable anionic molecules, this disruption of ionic concentrations across the plasma membrane coupled with the presence of impermeable anionic molecules, brings about a negative intracellular environment, and thus a potential difference across the membrane. However in a closed system such as the eukaryotic cell, the Gibbs -Donnan equilibrium leads to a greater intracellular osmotic pressure, if unopposed this would lead to a loss of control over cell volume, therefore ion transporters are in place to dissipate ion concentration, like that of the Na+-K+ ATPase. The exchange ratio of 3:2 potassium for sodium respectively, performed by the Na+-K+ ATPase also contributes to the electronegative intracellular environment, and thus the resting membrane potential. The major cause of the RMP is however down to the diffusion of potassium into the extracellular fluid via Sodium-Potassium leak channels, coupled with the low extracellular diffusion of sodium and the aforementioned Na+-K+ ATPase and Gibbs-Donnan equilibrium conditions, the resting membrane potential is formed. References Sperelakis, N. 1998. Cell Physiology Source Book. Second edition. Californa: Academic Press. Aidley, D. 1989. The Physiology of Excitable Cells. Third Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Levy, N. et al. 2006. Principles of Physiology. Fourth edition. Philadelphia: Elsevier Mosby. Huang, F. el al. 2009. Distribution of the Na/K pumps turnover rates As a function of membrane potential, temperature, and ion concentration gradients and effect of fluctuations.Journal of Physical Chemistry B113(23), pp. 8096-8102.

Frankenfoods Essay -- Biotechnology Farming Agriculture Essays

Frankenfoods Biotechnology and genetically modified organisms have gained quite a bit of notoriety in the past decade. Proponents of biotechnology are claiming that genetic modification will revolutionize agriculture and medicine and overall benefit human kind far beyond the reaches of imagination. On the other side of the issue, there are those who claim that genetic modification is dangerous and unneeded. But is either side correct? Will GMOs revolutionize the food and health industries or will they cause damage and downfall? Moreover, is it even ethical to tamper with nature and release science fiction into the food supply? GMOs and the History Behind Them Genetic modification has been present in agriculture since the Egyptians and the Sumerians first developed it over four thousand years ago. While modification was first used at a very basic level, today it involves implantation of DNA from one organism to another. The basis for genetic modification occurred in the 1970's when the technology to isolate individual genes and alter and copy them in cells was developed. In 1994, the first genetically modified crop, the Flavr Savr Tomato, was approved by the Food and Drug Administration for sale and consumption 1. Since then the GMOs have taken over the agriculture industry with over 22 percent (or roughly 60-70% of commercially sold foods) of crops worldwide being GM crops. The basis of modern biotechnology began in 1953 when a biologist and a physicist by the names of Watson and Crick discovered the structure of DNA2 . Since then, scientists have discovered ways to manipulate DNA and even transfer the DNA from one organism to another. Current genetic modification involves a process in which a gene segment literally g... ..., 18 Nov. 2003, Shah, Anup. Genetically Engineered Food. 2001. 18 Nov. 2003. < http://www.globalissues.org/EnvIssues/GEFood.asp> Stone, Brad. The Flavr Savr Arrives, 1994, 18 Nov. 2003, Sutton,Jason. Trasngenetic Crops: An Introductio and Resource Guide, 2002, Traynor,Marty. Hazards of Antibiotic Resistance Genes ni GE Foods, 2002, Wright,Robert. Molrcular Biologists James Watson and Francis Crick, 18 Nov. 2003, http://www.biotechnology.gov.au/biotechnologyOnline/interactives/gene_splicing_interactive.htm

Perspectives of media in health and social care Essay

The objective of this essay is to understand the representations of the media in Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)/AIDS issue on gays and bisexual persons within health and social care setting. The importance of the mass media will be discussed to gain insight in promoting awareness on HIV/AIDS. It will clarify some specific theories and models of approach as they relate to mass media context in relation to the case studies and conclude. Irwin et al (2003) assert that the prevalence of HIV/AIDS epidemic in both developing and developed world including the United Kingdom (UK) has increased to a level that is beyond the control of the human behaviours; as a result, the increasing rate of people infected with the HIV/AIDS and the rate of people dying in terms of mortality rate have caused a concern among policy makers, journalists, governments and the Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) throughout the entire world. For example, people infected are estimated at 34 million with HIV/AIDS while people who died is at 1.7 million globally (UNAIDS 2012). This led journalists across the globe including the United Kingdom (UK) to adopt strategies and develop tools to combat the epidemics. Hart (1991) defines mass media as devices that simultaneously transmit messages to large numbers of people and indicates that media are classified in three different kinds which include presentational, representational, and mechanical or electronic media. The mass media performs three key functions: educating, shaping public relations, and advocating for a particular policy or point of view. As education tools, media not only impart knowledge, but can be part of larger efforts to promote health issues and other related activities (e.g., social marketing) to promote behaviour change social utility (Department of Health 2011). For instance, when using the social marketing, the mass media targets a particular through poster and other adverts to inform gays and bisexual about the HIV. Beck et al (2005) emphasises that the presentational media ensures face-to-face communication, e.g. speech. He also indicates that the representational media enables messages to be stored, passed over a distance and produced in the absence of the participants because they use symbol  codes of prints, graphics and photography to communicate e.g. newspapers, comics and magazines. Thomson and White (2008) said that the messages are projected through television, radio, newspapers adverts, magazine, leaflets, books, and internet. This is evidenced in the communication model which states that the flow of information is a system of conveying a message in two ways, or in a multiple channels, because individuals will get opinions which are influenced by the type of message to be delivered. The model is based on two step system of information flow which in turn influences the wider community (Wellings and Field 1996). In United Kingdom (UK), the Department of Health allocated  £ 2.9 million each year to promote at the national level, the HIV/AIDS prevention campaigns through TV and other adverts (House of Lords 2010). The application of Marxist theory emphasises on the direct relationship existing between those who have economic power and those who can be able to disseminate information across the society. Tones and Tilford (2001) emphasised that the environmental model of approach is based on the advocating for the prevention of disease rather than depending on medical cure. Medical treatment is limited in providing effective behavioural change and cure. In other perspective, when using the environmental approach, a set of series programmes about HIV has only attempted to raise the awareness of how the disease can be contracted and prevented. Karpf (1998) identified the looking after yourself model said that this model mainly focus on individuals behaviour change. The concept of look after yourself approach has helped media and health organisations to campaign through TV, Radio and providing advices and necessary information to make people aware of the HIV effects. It also changed the way the society used to perceive the value of culture in line with the HIV/AIDS among gay and bisexual society, and this has become mainstreamed in the society (Miller 2002). McQuail (2010) emphasis that Marxist theory, put emphasis on promoting ideas than looking at material structure of the society. However, Marxist theory has contributed to the promotion of mass media; its critics depend on how media could have the power to influence the society in order to effectively effect change (McQuail 2010). The functionalist theory is based on the human behaviours which are run by the way social pattern reflect some kind of stability in relation to the social reality (Brym and Lie 2010) For instance, the use of TV as a channel to  disseminate information on HIV/AIDS has offered sights and real message to stimulate people representation to understand the significance of the effect of having HIV/AIDS. Despite the use of TV as means of disseminating the message on HIV/AIDS, has a limited scope in term of coverage because it is often limited to crises (Basten 2009). The UNAIDS (2004) report indicates that with TV there are some costs associated to it, for instance, the cost of advertising a short avert on health issues such as the HIV/AIDS is high, because of time consuming and creative art for the performance to meet a particular market segments ( Hornik 2008). Beck et al (2005) indicates that the use of the radio as a media of communication has the potential to reach diverse groups of people and huge number of people within the community.

Essay on Global Companies Essay

International companies are characterized by many factors among them geographical dispersion, demand for rationalization and differentiation and cultural diversity. These factors pose numerous challenges to international HR managers on how to ensure successful performance of their functions. The paper highlights various challenges the mentioned factors presents to IHRM in their work. It assembles evidence and previous research findings done by other writers. The paper also demonstrates why managing international HR is more difficult than managing HR in a large domestic firm. Challenges presented by geographical dispersion to international HR directors As employees in an international company come from different backgrounds and possess diverse experience, it’s hard to standardize pay and conditions of work (Briscoe & Schuler, 2009). Doing so is likely to bring conflicts among staff doing similar jobs in different locations. Standardizing working conditions is also tricky because of diverse cultures, rules and laws of different nations. Home working conditions and policies cannot be transferred to another country due to existence of different legislations in host country. In such a case each host country could have a slightly different working condition (Paik and Vance, 2006). Due also to natural differences in each country, it is hard to standardize business processes and pay in a multinational company. One of challenges faced by international HR managers is dealing with multiple time zones. This time differences bring about difficulties for managers to consult with key decision makers (Herod and Yearn, 2002). These difficulties may result into ramifications on productivity. Closely associated with this problem is the continued heavy reliance on face to face communications since improvement in technologies has not completely bridged this gap (Punnett, 1989). Rolling out a non conflicting international compensation system is a challenge to international HRM. This is due to the fact that conditions of employment differ among various categories of employees (Mendenhall et al, 1987). In addition, there exist variations among countries on ways of compensating workers. Salary levels for the same job also differ amongst countries. As a matter of fact compensation packages can be a source of conflict . This is mostly occurs when local employees start comparing their salary to those of expatriates and may conclude that there is no fairness. Expatriates in most of cases have better compensation packages than local employees doing the same job. As a result local employees may feel unappreciated and treated unfairly. Consequently, it may result to resentment and eventually lower employees’ morale and productivity (Roberts et al, 1998). The process of hiring and placement of different national categories of workers is very complex in global context. International HRM involves movement of people across international boundaries (Briscoe & Schuler, 2009). In such a case staffing becomes very hard as managers face hard choices to make from three pools of employees categories: employees from host country where the company operates (HCN), nationals from home country where the firm has headquarter (PNC) and citizens of other countries that may be sources of labor (TNC). The three types of employee groups have different backgrounds. This therefore requires the managers to have international mindset and adopt policies that facilitate establishment of internationally oriented staff (Briscoe & Schuler, 2009). Distinct countries have different government policies and ethical requirements which can pose problems to international HR managers. For instance an international company situated in South Africa would have expatriates willing to work there required to undergo a compulsory HIV/AIDS test. This could result to loss of talented employees who may not be willing to comply with the requirement. It would be therefore a challenge to managers to convince such expatriates to accept the requirement (Roberts et al, 1998). International HR managers also face difficulties determining compensation package among various categories of workers. This is so because of varied nationalities of workers and different levels of economic development in home countries. It therefore becomes hard to determine some form of compensation for instance hardship allowance (Hofstede, 1992). International scene is also more complex due to language differences. This becomes a challenge in ease of accessing company’s documents such as vision and mission statements, company’s records and procedure manuals. Language barriers could also impede communication and sharing of information among the workers. This can only be solved by language standardization (Laurent, 1986). The nature of employee involvement also varies depending on country and institutional factors. Employee involvement is crucial in any organization and results into enhanced communication, coordination of tasks, enhanced information sharing and reduced turnover. Employee involvement is however is influenced by organization and national factors such as industrial relations, financial system, social forces and market forces (Petti and Fadel, 1997). Consequently in a global context, the nature of employment will vary due to diverse national forces. Challenges occasioned by need for rationalization and differentiation to international HR directors. Process of rationalization normally involves lowering of organizations operational costs and more improved control (Punnett, 1989). This requires timely provision of information. On a global context, it is a challenge to HR managers to obtain information quickly and to become proactive in achieving business objectives. Due to the complex nature of international organization, it becomes challenging to ensure faster access to high quality information at a significantly business processing cost . However due to rationalization demands in order for the company to remain competitive, managers have to carry out proper compensation, recruitment and placement (Punnett, 1989). Differentiation is the process of distinguishing firms’ products or services from those offered by competitors (Petti and Fadel, 1997). This is done by making them unique and more attractive to a particular target market. Differentiation is normally implemented by ensuring differences in functional features, quality, availability and reputation. Formulation of differentiation strategy is vital for making firms’ products more competitive in a competitive market. In global context it poses challenges for managers to adopt proper strategies in recruitment and selection to ensure the products remain unique and reputable (Petti and Fadel, 1997). Challenges presented by cultural diversity to international HR directors International companies operate in different countries with diverse regulations, standard of living and labor unions (Hofstede, 1992). In some countries, labor unions determine wage policies. In Australia for instance unions negotiate rates of payment on behalf of workers. In other countries like Hong Kong unions have little influence and pay rates are determined by free market. This makes the process of determining pay package very hard to HR managers in global scene (Hofstede, 1992). International HRM must be aware of cultural differences and develop culturally sensitive attitudes for business to thrive (Laurent, 1986). Majority of HRM functions such as compensation; training, recruitment and selection are done according to cultural practices of host nation. Sometimes adapting to local expectation and customs brings more problems. In Indonesia for instance local employees are obliged to employ members of their family. However, acting in such nepotism way may be detrimental to the company since the best fitted persons will not be hired (Punnett, 1989). Diverse norms on methods of motivating employees amongst countries are a key challenge. The use of incentives and gifts for instance may have varied results. In cultures such as America money may be a good motivator. In other cultures such as Japan, non financial incentives for instance job security, social acceptance and promotions may motivate employees better (Mendenhall et al, 1987). The international HR managers are hence challenged to match the motivators with cultural values. International businesses also operate in countries with different cultural differences amongst groups of people in the same country. This ultimately translates into different HRM policies procedures and system. The work of IHRM is therefore determined by cultural aspects of the host country (Petti and Fadel, 1997). This places a challenge to IHRM managers to reconsider each strategy in terms of the country’s cultural condition. Some strategies may work in some country but fail in others. A Hong Kong company dealing with dental services for instance decided to offer a ‘use it or lose it’ policy worth $1000 a year. Initially the company had a high staff turnover of 24%. After a short time, the company’s turnover dropped significantly to 4%. The strategy could not just work in that context (Petti and Fadel, 1997). As the case illustrates, research is required to be conducted amongst employees to establish the kind of strategies which are workable. People also have varied takes and attitudes with regard to contracts. People from western countries think of it just like a contract and will follow it after it’s signed. The Chinese however take it different and prefer continued relationship with their manager. So they will sign it, have a handshake and get to know their manager (Laurent, 1986). Therefore the IHRM has to consider acceptability and adaptability. Diversity management is also a challenge especially managing varying expectations in workplace. Some countries emphasize on gender equity and affirmative action while others do no (Hofstede, 1992)t. In such a case organizations with such policies face difficulties implementing them in some countries. In some parts of the world woman expatriates may experience difficulties in gaining acceptance (Hofstede, 1992). Culture is also a significant constraint in employee performance appraisals and feedback process. Western counties have been found to have different styles of performance appraisals which are difficult to transfer to non western countries (Briscoe & Schuler, 2009). The purpose of appraisal, acceptance of its result and the mode of conduct of the feedback process are also different amongst countries. In some cultures for instance Japan performance appraisal are not acceptable and are normally interpreted as sign of distrust. In other cultures such as Chinese performance appraisals are used to determine pay (Briscoe & Schuler, 2009). Why managing International HR is inherently more difficult than managing HR in a large domestic firm. Unlike domestic firm, international HR involves moving staff across many countries with diverse cultural and economic aspects. As such international HRM is more complex as it deals with different categories of workers from different countries. There are also many aspects and a broad range of issues o take into consideration (Paik and Vance, 2006). To begin with, there are more HR activities to deal with in an international environment. Foreign employees are normally subjected to both domestic and international tax liabilities. This necessitates need to design tax equalization policies to bridge this gap. There are also a lot of international relocation and orientation activities. This may take the shape of arranging pre departure training and providing information such travel details, shopping and schooling. Foreign employees must also be provided with housing, medical care and recreation services. The expatriates also require to be provided by administrative services within which the host country operates. In addition the international HR must provide language translation services (Mendenhall et al, 1987). The international HR manager is also required to take a broad view of issues. This is particularly due to the fact that the managers deal with more than one national group of employees all working together. One such broader perspective would be to ensure that employees working in foreign locations receive foreign premium regardless of their nationality. Such a policy should be implemented without showing preferential treatment to only employees working on overseas assignment but even to foreigners assigned to firm’s home country (Chan, 1994). The IHRM thus has to deal with equity issues with regard to compensation. International HR managers are also required to get more involved in employees personal lives (Herod and Yearn, 2002). The HRM needs to ensure that expatriate employees comprehends compensation package such as cost of living allowances, premium taxes among others. He also needs to ensure they understand housing arrangements and health care. This creates need for establishment of a section that provides services such as handling of employees’ investments, banking and coordinating home visits. If for instance there is to be a relocation or transfer, the HR department will need to know the employees personal life in order to provide the level of support required. This is particularly due to some governments requirements like marriage certificate in order to stay in some locations. In addition the HR managers may want to assist the family left behind at home country (Herod and Yearn, 2002). In the international context, there is always need to change emphasis in HR operations as workforce varies. This mostly occurs when more trained locals become available and hence the need of foreign employees decline. Resources which had previously allocated to allocated to expatriate issues have thus to be transferred to local stuff training and development. This broadens HR activities such as training, planning and compensation (Chan, 1994). International assignments increase exposure to risks that HRM has to deal with. There are more severe consequences resulting from expatriate failure and underperformance. Such a failure may be too costly to the company in terms of salary, relocation expenses and travel costs. There could also be loss of foreign share, market share and breakdown of foreign relations. The HR department must also consider possible acts of terrorism. On top of that the HR must put in place emergency evacuation procedures for assignments in locations susceptible to epidemic crises (Roberts et al, 1998). International HRM also has to deal with more and complex external factors. The company must comply with government’s requirements about staffing in foreign locations. Moreover, local codes of conduct and religious groups’ regulations must be obeyed (Roberts et al, 1998). Conclusion The research and evidence presented in the paper demonstrates that managing HR in global context is more challenging and complex than in domestic scene. There are many issues which constrain international HR managers and which are unique to each country. The managers are therefore required to be flexible and adopt a local responsive strategy in order to have successful and sustainable businesses.