Cutlure of Music essays

Cutlure of Music essays Music plays an important role in todays culture. Whether youre driving in your car, watching a movie, or are at a sporting event, music is all around you. It pleases your emotions, soothes your soul and takes away all the worries in the world. But its not just one type of music that has this effect on everybody. In fact, there is an indefinite amount of genres of music. (The amount depends on how one classifies the music). Throughout this paper I will tell of different genres of music in todays American culture and give a thorough description of each. The first genre, and probably most well known, is Rock s income would come from this genre. Rock is a form of dance music originating around the 1950s, and is a blend of rhythm and blues with country and western. Electric guitars, vocals, an electric bass and a drum set consisting of a snare drum, a bass drum, tom-toms, a hi-hat cymbal, a ride and a crash cymbal usually comprise the sound of Rock, but a keyboard and a piano can also fall into this category. There is many different subdivisions of Rock, for instance theres Punk Rock, Heavy Metal, Death Metal, Surf Rock, etc. Pop usually appeals to younger people due to its catchy and simple music, but it plays quite the significant role in todays culture. Next is Opera music. Opera is drama set to music. Around 1600, it originated in Italy and has been spread throughout many countries. In late history, Opera was originally composed and performed for the upper-class society, whereas in todays society, it can be enjoyed by anybody. Jazz is the next category. Jazz is an American tradition. Its categorized by its strong but flexible rhythm with solo and group improvisations on basic tunes. To sum it all up, you can call it big band dance music. Jazz originated in New Orleans around the turn of the 20th century and since th...

Definition and Examples of Nicknames

Definition and Examples of Nicknames A nickname is a familiar form of a proper name (of a person or place), or any descriptive name or epithet used informally. Also known as a  sobriquet or prosonomasia. EtymologyFrom the Old English, extra name Examples and Observations Rhymes, contractions, verbal analogs and suffix additions seem to be the commonest ways of forming a nickname by internal methods: Colley yields Dolly, Patricia goes to Trish and Ramow to Cow.(Jane Morgan et al., Nicknames: Their Origins and Social Consequences. Routledge, 1979)Nicknames are often descriptive, even if allusively so, though . . . they can be based on a persons forename or surname. They may replace an original name or be used in addition to it. The latter type of nickname is familiar with royal names, e.g., Alexander the Great, Ivan the Terrible, William the Conqueror. For such names, the formula with the is common, but the nickname may appear without it.(Adrian Room, An Alphabetical Guide to the Language of Name Studies. Scarecrow Press, 1996)Teachers NicknamesGiving teachers nicknames is a way of weakening their terrible authority, probably. . . . My friends and I had teachers and coaches we called Flipper (real last name, Flappan), Stublet (not very tall), Stank (hy giene problems), Bat (short for Wombat; real name, Wambold), Dawg (short for Schoondog; real name, Schoonover), Papa Joe (longtime gym teacher), Easy Ed (beloved basketball coach), Myhoo (real last name, Mayhew), Woodchuck (real first name, Charles). There was a Latin teacher whose real last name was Wucker, an unfairly easy target; we called him Ed (his first name), Tony (what his wife called him), or Wuck.(David Owen, Call Me Loyd. The New Yorker. Feb. 11 18, 2008) The Range of Nicknames[P]laces (The Big AppleNew York), sports teams (GunnersArsenal), newspapers (The ThundererThe Times), and musical works (EroicaBeethovens third symphony) illustrate the range of entities that have been nicknamed.(David Crystal, Words, Words, Words. Oxford University Press, 2006)Ekename: The Origin of the WordA nickname is not, as one might at first suppose, a name that has been stolen or nicked from somewhere else; it is, literally, an additional name. The current form of the word, with the element as nick-, is in fact a corruption of the earlier form eke-name (with the first element as eke-). . . .An eke-name, then, is orginally an additional name: your real name is eked out by having another name added to it, and in time this ekename may become a substitute for the original. But how did ekename become nickname? . . . . When the words were written down in the Middle Ages by people who had never seen them in writing, the n evidently got detached from the an and attached to the eke, giving us a nekename; and when the vowel sound in eke is subsequently shortened through fast or lazy pronunciation, we end up with todays form, nickname.(Tom Burton, Long Words Bother Me. Sutton, 2004) ProsonomasiaProsonomasia defines a person or thing by some characteristic: the Conqueror (William I of England); the dismal science (political economy); the king of beasts (the lion); the Father of Lies (Satan): the great unwashed (the populace); the Iron Duke (Wellington); the Jolly Roger (pirate flag); the Knight of the Rueful Countenance (Don Quixote); and so on.(Willard R. Espy, The Garden of Eloquence: A Rhetorical Bestiary. Harper Row, 1983)George Carlin on the Lighter Side of NicknamesI cant understand a grown man whose nickname is Fuzzy and who actually allows people to call him that. Do these guys really introduce themselves that way? Hi, Im Fuzzy. If some guy said that to me, I would say to him, Well, you dont look very fuzzy to me.(George Carlin, When Will Jesus Bring the Pork Chops? Hyperion, 2004)Nicknames in Monty Pythons Flying CircusInterviewer: Last week the Royal Festival Hall saw the first performance of a new symphony by one of the worlds leading modern composers , Arthur Two Sheds Jackson. Mr Jackson.Jackson: Good evening.Interviewer: May I just sidetrack you for one moment. Mr. Jackson, this, what shall I call it, nickname of yours.Jackson: Oh yes.Interviewer: Two sheds. How did you come by it?Jackson: Well, I dont use it myself. Its just a few of my friends call me Two Sheds.Interviewer: I see, and do you in fact have two sheds?Jackson: No. No, Ive only one shed. Ive had one for some time, but a few years ago I said I was thinking of getting another one, and since then some people have called me Two Sheds.Interviewer: In spite of the fact that you have only one.Jackson: Yes.Interviewer: I see, and are you thinking of purchasing a second shed?Jackson: No.Interviewer: To bring you in line with your epithet?Jackson: No.(Eric Idle and Terry Jones in episode one of Monty Pythons Flying Circus, 1969)

Asthma Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Asthma - Essay Example Asthma is caused by either a narrowing or block in the bronchial tubes. The bronchial tubes narrow from being blocked by mucous and swelling or they are squeezed from the muscles outside A person may have asthma without having flare ups for long periods of time. Asthma can be a continual disease, however there are typically triggers that initiate the bout. According to Web MD there are several triggers to asthma and identifying which culprit flares one asthma episode will allow the individual to off-set attacks (www.webmd.com/asthma). Allergies are a known asthma trigger. It is estimated that up to 80% of people with asthma are allergic to airborne substances. Certain foods can also flare up asthma. Additives that can be found in certain foods can bring on an attack. Excessive exercise can also be a culprit. Strenuous exercise can cause narrowing of the airways which makes it difficult to breathe. It is stated that severe heartburn and asthma have a direct connection. Gerd (gastroesophageal reflux disease) causes stomach acid to back up into the esophagus. If the stomach acid reaches into the the throat or airways then an asthma attack can be triggered. Smoking is another asthma trigger as smoking interferes with lung functioning. Introducing smoke into an asthmatic body only worsens the condition and further obstructs airway passages. Sinusitis and upper respiratory infections cause more mucous to be produced in that line the sinuses which can also bring on asthma attacks. When airways get inflamed then sinusitis may occur triggering asthma attacks. Infections are another thing that can bring on asthma attacks. This common cause can be found to bring on asthma attacks especially in children under 10. Along with the preceding triggers, medications are also a culprit. It is common for those with asthma to have sensitivity to certain medications especially anti-inflammatory drugs and beta

The support of Small and Medium-sized Enterprises Case Study

The support of Small and Medium-sized Enterprises - Case Study Example Furthermore, Marjolein and Henny (2005) indicated that SMEs Support in most countries has been motivated by the belief that this support generates much employment, encourages people, and is widely provide good opportunities to develop new business, and to enhance its competitiveness within effectiveness performance. In the same manner as varied definitions have been given to small and medium enterprises throughout the entire globe, the researcher has also discovered the different ways by which governments support them. According to Sissenich (2007), the extent of the support given to SMEs in different countries have been a very popular area for research as this has been considered to be of paramount importance to the success of the SMEs which could in turn, bring about positive benefits for the economic growth and development of these countries. For instance, the Chinese Central Bank has adopted several measures by which they could help in lessening the difficulties being experienced by the Small and Medium Enterprises in the country. In general, the said support is firmly anchored on four specific policies that are friendly and of paramount importance to the Small and Medium Enterprises. ... he other hand, shows that governments in Africa does not provide any support for the Small and Medium Enterprises for the country thereby contributing to the failure of such in their country. According to the said author, the absence of the said support has been relatively detrimental to the country's economic growth and development. The report entitled Saudis give priority for developing SME sector (2005) showed that the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has been giving paramount importance to the SME sector since 2005. According to the said report, the country has placed top priority on the said development as a result of their accession to the World Trade Organization. For the authorities in the country, much effort must be given to the reinvigoration and strengthening of the base of the Small and Medium Enterprises as they are the backbone of their economy thus illustrating their importance for the economic growth and development of the kingdom (Saudis give priority for developing SME Sector, 2005). However, there are some aspects of efforts and decisions have been made by the government and private sectors in Saudi Arabia to encourage citizens to establish small to medium- sized businesses. One of these significant decision and extension of support for SMEs in the mentioned state has recently been announced by Human Resources Development Fund (2009) that the (HRDF) decided to provide the applicants, who have already passed the phases of establishing small or medium business and have already received the loan, SR three thousand per month during the first tow years, in order to supply the essential requirements during establishment stage away from the prejudice to the capital. Also the same report listed several organizations that support SMEs, such as Technical and

Empire of the Sun Essay Example for Free

Empire of the Sun Essay Empire of the Sun In this essay will be talking about how Ballard shows Jim changing over the course of the book The Empire of the Sun. I am splitting the essay into 5 paragraphs: What Jim is like at the start of the novel, Jims first upheaval, the prison camps, the way Dr Ransong and Bassie treat Jim and the contrast, finally what Jim is like at the end of the novel. At the start of this book, Ballard shows us a typical English schoolboy living in Shanghai. This boy Jim and his family are very wealthy, so you can imagine what sort of lifestyle Jim was living in: Big house, servants that he can call on 24/7, a bike, many toys including aeroplanes. Then there are his clothes: A school blazer and cap. He is also is taught Latin. This shows us that he is very much surrounded by money and anything he could ever wish for. This creates an impression that he leads a very sheltered life and that he does understand reality. Jim has a very normal life. Everything is working well for him. Until one day before he starts school, the Chinese fleet attack the Petrol (a Japanese gun boat. ) This is the first big upheaval in Jims life. This is totally unexpected to Jim. Nothing like this has ever happened before in Jims life, so it comes as a surprise to him. Ballard gives us the sense that Jim is a very ignorant boy because he thought that he started the war when he was flash his light at the opposite Chinese gun boat, and after the bombs had gone he still thought that he would go to school. This shows a lack of maturity and common sense. This gives us a very bad picture of what Jim is like as a person. He thinks that he will still be able to go to school even though there is a war going on. Most people would think that he would be mad to think that. Ballard makes us see Jim as a very naive person. During the book, Jim spends a lot of the time in a prison camp. When he gets to the first camp, he befriends an American called Bassie. He persuades Bassie to help him find his parents in return for a reward. This gives Bassie an opportunity to use Jim for any errands that he has for Jim, and for this Jim gets a little something in return. This is a complete change of lifestyle for Jim. He normally gets people to do his work for him, but now Bassie is making him do work for him. During his stay at the detention centre, Jim experiences hunger, disease and hallucinations. This again is another new experience for Jim. If he had the slightest illness when he was with his parents, he would get the best treatment for the illness, but now he has lost his parents, he has to fend for himself. I think he copes with it very well. He manages to survives and moves on with his life When Jim and Bassie to another camp called Lunghua, Dr Ransong starts teaching him Latin. I think the reason he does is to try and keep Jim as a child. This is because he is losing his childhood because of the war. It is just trying to keep Jim safe until he matures fully. The way Dr Ransong and Bassie treat Jim are very different. Dr Ransong tries to keep Jim as a child to try and protect him from any dangers that occur. Bassie on the other hand, he treats Jim as a young adult. This is because Bassie want Jims trust so that he can do more for him. Bassie tries to keep Jim alive by telling him the way to survive is to steal the metal food bowls in the detention centre from the dead people. So Jim is split two ways, Dr Ransong is trying to maintain Jims ignorance of the world by keeping his childhood to keep him safe, and Bassie is trying to make Jim look at the world very broadly so that Jim can survive and so Jim can keep doing jobs for Bassie. At the end of the novel, Jim is a transformed child. He has gone from being a nai ve 10 year old, to being a mentally scarred 14 year old with a certain understanding of war and life in general. He has lost his childhood completely because of the death and war that he has experienced.

Free Euthanasia Essays: Hospice and Physician-Assisted Suicide :: Euthanasia Physician Assisted Suicide

Hospice and Assisted Suicide/Euthanasia One Work Cited This essay will present the views of that worldwide organization named Hospice which has seen the quiet, natural death of millions of terminally ill patients - without the use of physician-assisted suicide. It is important that the voice of the largest caregiver for the terminally ill be heard, and listened to attentively. For they have the most experience. The Hemlock Society is nothing (in scope, importance, goals)in comparison to this great Hospice Organization (HO). Hospice professionals and caregivers have given the issue of physician-assisted suicide much thought and consideration in recent years, and adopted an organizational position on the issue as early as February of 1992. Last year, when the debate increased in intensity, the HO not only reaffirmed its earlier position, but strengthened it. The Organization's Resolution clearly states, "That assisted suicide is not a component of hospice care; ..." and "That the Hospice Organization does not support the legalization of voluntary euthanasia or assisted suicide in the care of the terminally ill." Hospice workers, likely more than any other group of care providers, deal with the desperation that many individuals feel when they accept the fact that their illness is likely to be the cause of their death. In that process, hospice staff deal not only with the physical pain of the illness, but also the emotional pain of facing leaving one's family, the social pain of enduring what may be considered indignities, and the spiritual pain associated with one's cultural and personal beliefs about life after death. Through an interdisciplinary approach that is unique to hospice care, patients who elect hospice receive treatment for all their concerns. Hospice caregivers have discovered three central reasons a terminally ill person may want to discuss suicide. One is a fear of uncontrolled pain. Another is fear of abandonment, of being left alone to die and feeling there is no one to care. The third is concern over financial pressures that may leave a family devastated by the last illness. Hospice addresses these concerns as quickly in the disease process as is possible, and hospice workers everywhere will tell the public that when these issues are under control, the desire to end one's life becomes a non-issue. Hospice workers dedicate their professional and often their personal lives to successfully resolving those issues. The hospice community is very concerned that the legalization of

Infant and Child Development Essay

This assignment will critically review Howlett, Kirk and Pine’s (2011) study, which aims to investigate whether attendance of gesturing classes affects parental stress. Howlett et al. , (2011) attempt to examine claims, advertised by commercial products, that believe attending gesturing classes can improve child-parent communications, thus reducing parental stress. Participants gave demographic information and completed a Parenting Stress Index (PSI) questionnaire. ANCOVA was used to look at whether attending gesturing classes affected parental stress, mothers attending a gesture group and mothers attending a non gesture group were compared; with ‘sibling status’ and ‘birth order’ controlled. Researchers found that mothers who attended infant gesture classes had higher stress scores than mothers who had attended non-gesturing classes. From these findings the following claims are made: that mothers in the gesture group had higher pre-existing stress than in the non gesture group, * that mothers attended gesturing classes in an attempt to alleviate their pre-existing stress, * that gesturing classes may cause mothers to view their child negatively. This critique will firstly provide an overall evaluation of the article with reference to strengths and weaknesses found. Flaws will also be highlighted with suggestion to how these could be rectified. Points of detail in the evaluation will then be expanded and conclusions di scussed. Overall evaluation First and foremost, the overall presentation of the article appears to lack in structure and organisation; this results in a lack of flow and clarity. In the introduction, the research question and key definitions of interest (i. e. ‘gesture, ‘non gesture’ and ‘stress’) are not discussed at the beginning. Characteristics of non gesturing mothers are instead firstly mentioned in the discussion section. The outline of categories in the background demographic questionnaire should have been made aware to readers in the methodology. Furthermore, in the results, findings from the study should have been stated in the opening paragraph. A fundamental flaw consistent throughout the article regards its lack of sufficient detail in ensuring strength of argument. In the introduction and discussion more research is needed in relation to how and why parental stresses occur to support findings. Furthermore unjustified claims are used to sustain argument which questions the validity of the research. The lack of detail regarding the direction of study also instigates ambiguity. More information is also needed about the procedure of the study so as to allow for replication. Further details as to how these flaws can be rectified are discussed later. Fundamental flaws are apparent regarding the non-random sample used and the lack of baseline stress measures. As no baseline pre-test has been conducted authors’ claims, as stated previously, can only be based on speculation. More information is provided on these flaws in the latter section. Strengths highlighted in the article include the demographic information provided. This information is useful as it allows for generalisation of results by ensuring groups are appropriately matched and offers useful information for future research in the region. (Keith, 2010). Furthermore the PSI questionnaire used, is well validated (Colver, 2006); using a creditable measuring instrument like this increases the reliability of the study. Moreover, the correct statistical test has been used, ANCOVA, and results are also provided with appropriate information. Abstract and Introduction The abstract fails to provide a rationale for the study; as this is unclear, readers may misjudge the subject matter. There is also no description of the stimuli used; the meaning of ‘gesturing’ is unexplained. Authors should elaborate upon what they mean by ‘gesturing’ so as to avoid misinterpretation. However, principal findings and design measures used in the study are stated. The introduction appears to lack in structure and organisation. No initial description of research question with reference to what it attempts to demonstrate is present; this is firstly mentioned in the third paragraph. Furthermore, authors first provide a definition of ‘gesturing’ in midpoint of this section. Considering this topic is the phenomenon of the study it would have been more appropriate to be stated at the beginning, rather than after the discussion of the benefits of gesturing; this may prevent misinterpretation. Although an explanation of ‘non-gesturing’ is provided in the discussion section, it would also be helpful for readers if it were included in the introduction; this enables differentiation between the two conditions. Similarly, a definition of the authors’ interpretation of ‘stress’ could have been stated at the start in ensuring readers’ clarity of terms. There is also no statement of hypothesis. nd authors do not provide a rationale or historical backdrop, therefore it lacks in significance and does not substantially contribute to the literature. Moreover, research discussed appears to be framed as a general review of literature and set out in list form with a lack of evaluation. For example, research has been described in relation to a study that has found no relationship between gesturing and linguistic benefits in infants (Kirk, Howlett, Pine and Fletcher), however it has not been evaluated or linked to the aims of the study. Furthermore, there are limited findings provided relating to the negative aspects of gesturing. Considering the paper is directed towards whether these classes affect parental stress, more research should be discussed in relation to the disapproval of gesturing classes, to support findings in the article. In addition, the article has included different research examples to support their view that parental stress can inhibit parent-child relationships, however there is no development in argument of how or why these stresses occur. To rectify, in ensuring clarity, more detail should be provided whereby these examples should be put in context with direct reference to the research question. Moreover, unjustified claims have been used in an attempt to sustain argument; for example, Howlett et al. , (2011) highlight ‘‘advertising claims that baby sign will reduce parental frustration and stress have little empirical foundation’. As this statement is not explained, it may seem misleading and as an ineffective use of argument. There is also no valid reference provided. In improving the structure and validity of their argument, authors should use evidence from influential papers to provide further detail in supporting their claims. The direction of study also appears ambiguous as authors switch between terms when stating the aim of the research. It is unclear whether authors are focusing on gesturing affecting stress or gesturing reducing stress. Howlett et al. , (2011) firstly state, ‘there are valid reasons to suggest that gesturing with an infant could reduce parental stress, this paper evaluates that claim’, (p. 438) they continue by stating, ‘this research investigates whether gesturing with an infant affects parenting stress’ (p438). One clear statement of what is being intended to measure needs to be used throughout the article so as to avoid confusion. The final paragraph includes a vague definition of variables whereby readers are left to determine their own assumptions. For example, it is stated that the frequency and duration of gesture use was used to measure the relationship between gesture use and stress, however it is unclear at this stage whether authors are implying ‘gesturing’ in terms of when mothers’ attended gesturing classes or their general use of gesturing; in and out of classes. The PSI is outlined, however researchers have not explained its benefits or why it have been use; this may leave readers questioning its credibility. Furthermore, it is important for researchers to include a statement of predictions, however this is not present. Methodology The authors recruited 178 participants (mothers) from the south-east of England; the sample size represents regional bias as mothers’ solely attending gesturing classes in this region is not representative of the whole country. Age range of infants used in the study is firstly mention in this section. It is stated infants ranged between 3 and 36months; however research discussed in the introduction only refers to the importance of gesturing from 9 months. Therefore authors have not justified the relevance of focusing on infants younger than 9 months; in certifying readers understanding, this could have been mentioned in the introduction. Authors have stated the measuring instruments used in the study. A strength regards the sufficient detail provided about the PSI booklet; examples of typical features such as the subscales of both the child and parent domains have been described. However no further details are provided about the background demographics questionnaire; categories are presented in the results section, however, it would be helpful for readers if details were included in this section. The potential confounding effects of using self-report questionnaires should also be noted. Social desirability bias may be apparent whereby participants may respond in a favourable light; mothers may not want to admit they are experiencing difficulties and respond untruthfully. Furthermore, as questionnaires are standardised, ambiguous questions cannot be explained; this may lead participants to misinterpret questions. Motivation for parents to complete questionnaires may also be scarce, resulting in superficial responses. In helping overcome these difficulties, authors could have stated whether participants were informed about why the information was collected and how the results will be beneficial; if participants knew the importance of their responses and were informed that negative responses were equally as helpful as positive, it may have made them want to answer more honestly. A fundamental flaw in methodology regards the fact that authors have not measured parental stress levels before conducting study. As there is no baseline stress measures prior to class attendance, there is no way of knowing if gesturing classes caused an increase in stress or what would have happened regardless of the implementation of the program; to rectify, researchers should use a pre-test methodology. Furthermore, another weakness in the methodology regards the fact that no ethic considerations are discussed. For example, authors could have included whether participant confidentiality was taken into account and whether de-briefing was offered subsequent to the study to respondents who may have expressed signs of upset. Description of procedures appears to lack in detail whereby there is no sequential pattern to how the research was carried out. There is also no precision in relation to what is investigated, to whom, and under what conditions. For example, Howlett et al. , (2011) state ‘contact was made with the infant groups’ (p. 39); more information should be provided such as how and when participants were contacted. Furthermore, no information is provided on how many classes parents had attended before the study or when the questionnaires took place; more sufficient detail is needed so as to allow replication and in ensuring consistency. There are also issues surrounding the amount of time participants were given to complete the PSI; it is stated the questionnaire takes approximately 30 minutes to complete, however, the procedure of collection differed between participants. Some gave completed questionnaires to a group leader, others were returned by post; the same conditions should be applied to all participants in ensuring standardisation. In addition, authors have not provided details of data collection or analysis undergone in the study; to avoid ambiguity it is important to include where the scores used in the analyses have derived from. An apparent fundamental flaw in the procedure relates to the fact that participants were not randomly allocated to the two groups in the study; randomisation is important as it eliminates sources of bias and ensures unpredictability. To rectify, random selection of mothers from a population could participate in the study. Results The beginning paragraph of the results is too vague; the hypothesis is not stated and no information on what statistical tests were used is provided. Furthermore, what the study found has not been not stated; it is firstly mentioned half way through this section. However, a strength in the article regards the demographic information provided for the two groups of mothers. Hours a week mothers’ work, maternal education, family income and siblings were included. It also highlights the similarities and equivalence between the two groups, making the interpretation of results valid. Another strength to this study regards the fact that researchers have applied the correct statistical tests. Two analyses of ANCOVA were conducted to measure the differences between the gesturing and non gesturing groups’ PSI scores. ANCOVA is appropriate to use as it allows to compare one variable (PSI stress scores) in two or more groups (gesture group and non gesture group) ith consideration for variability of other variables; covariates (‘sibling status’ was used as a covariate in the first ANCOVA and ‘birth order’; in the second). Controlling ‘sibling status’ and ‘birth order’ stops these conditions being confounding variables and ensures validity. As ‘sibling status’ and ‘birth control’ covariates have been controlled, it may have been more beneficial for readers if authors ma de aware of these strategies used prior to the results section as there is no discussion relating to siblings until this point. Results found from ANCOVA also confirm to readers exactly what the researchers were intending to measure; after confusion from the introduction, uncertainties are clarified and findings explain that the focus is upon whether attending gesturing classes affects parental stress. Results are also provided with adequate information whereby the obtained F value, df and level of significance have been stated. Furthermore researchers are correct in using a Pearson’s r correlation in confirming results which is used to see if there is a correlation between at two continuous variables. By doing so, it was found that there was no relationship between how long or often gesture groups mothers had been gesturing with their infant, and the mothers’ total stress scores. Therefore mothers stress levels were unrelated to frequency and duration. Furthermore, in this section descriptive statistics have been provided in two separate tables. In ‘Table One’, which shows the ‘mean (S. D) stress scores for each item on the PSI by group’, data does not seem to be explained in full. The scale used is unclear and readers have not been informed on the system used whereby there is confusion as to what the numbers mean. Tables 2 which shows the ‘summary of two ANCOVA results’, is more coherent as a brief description is displayed underneath describing the covariates. Discussion In this section, yet again, the aim of the research remains unclear; it is stated ‘the aim of the study was to investigate the impact of gesturing with an infant upon parental stress’ (p442), authors need to be more specific in their interpretation of ‘gesturing’, whether they are referring to attendance of gesturing classes or general use of gesturing is uncertain. Possible explanations for findings have been discussed, such as the view that there may have been a difference between gesturing and non gesturing mothers due to gesturing mothers feeling more stressed prior to the study. Authors continue by suggesting these mothers chose to attend gesturing classes because of these feelings of stress in hope that they would help. However, authors’ claims can only be seen as speculation as no baseline measurement was used. It should be noted that researchers have evaluated their findings and acknowledged that as baseline measures are not present, no assumptions can be made as to why mothers who attended gesturing classes had increased stress levels compared to non gesturing mothers or whether they were more stressed before attending the classes. Due to the lack of solid findings, like in the introduction, groundless claims have been used in an effort to uphold argument in explaining mothers’ cause of stress. For example, it is stated ‘mothers have high aspirations for their child and the parenting industry may, albeit unwittingly, foster maternal insecurities’(p443); no justification has been provided for this claim. Moreover, additional research is needed to support the authors’ concluding claims that attending gesturing classes may be detrimental and effect mothers’ perception of their infant in a negative light. Only Hyson’s (1991) study relating to mothers who induced academically focused activities on preschool children has been used as evidence to back up this claim, this does not justify the authors’ inflated claims. To conclude, even though this article has used creditable measuring instruments and appropriate statistical tests, Howlett et al’s claims can only be seen as speculation as no pre-test baseline is used. No findings can be validated without measuring the stress levels of mothers prior to class attendance, whether increase in stress has occurred due to attending gesturing classes in unknown. For future recommendations, authors could use a baseline measures to test mothers’ stress scores prior to the study.